Abraham Maslow received his Ph.D. degree in Psychology from the University of Wisconsin in Madison and moved to New York City. He taught at Columbia Teachers College and then Brooklyn College and developed relationships with Max Wertheimer, a gestalt psychologist, and Ruth Benedict, an anthropologist. He came to love, adore and admire both and wondered why they were so superior to average people. He began to note characteristics of each and it soon became clear that they fit a single pattern. Maslow looked for others who fit this pattern and found many (about one percent of the population). These people represent the highest level of human development which he called self-actualization, a term previously used by Kurt Goldstein who was then at Columbia University. (This paragraph was largely taken and condensed from Maslow, 1971, pp. 40-41).
Maslow found that self-actualizing people have progressed through the hierarchy of needs. They have gratified their basics needs for safety, belongingness, love, respect, self-respect and cognitive needs for knowledge and understanding. They have worked out their philosophical, religious or axiological (relating to values) bearings. Self-actualizing people have fully exploited and developed or are well on the way toward fully exploiting and developing their native talents, capacities and potentialities.
Maslow published a comprehensive article on self-actualizing people (Maslow, 1950) with an updated version in one of his books (Maslow, 1970a, pp. 149-180) Also, he also published a short list of “the objectively describable and measurable characteristics of the healthy human specimen” (Maslow, 1968, p. 157).
The characteristics of self-actualizing people are given below.
Emotionally, Mentally, Intellectually and Physically Healthy
Self-actualizing people are emotionally, mentally, intellectually and physically healthy and are free of any present mental or personality disorder. In Maslow’s terminology this was a requirement for the “absence of neurosis, psychopathic personality, psychosis or strong tendencies in these directions” (Maslow, 1970a, p. 150) and the absence of “character disorders and disturbances” (Maslow, 1968, p. 193).
Note that many or perhaps all self-actualizing people have experienced and overcome past emotional trauma and have been strengthened by it. Growth and improvement can come through pain and conflict. According to Maslow, discipline, deprivation, frustration, pain and tragedy are necessary to reveal, foster and fulfill our inner nature and are therefore desirable experiences. These experiences have something to do with a sense of achievement and ego strength and therefore with the sense of healthy self-esteem and self-confidence. The person who hasn’t conquered, withstood and overcome continues to feel doubtful that he or she could. This is true for external dangers and also for the ability to control and delay one’s own impulses and therefore to be unafraid of them. (This paragraph is slightly rearranged from Maslow, 1968, p.4 and p.7).
Clear & Efficient Perception of Reality
These people have superior ability to reason, perceive the truth, to come to conclusion and to be cognitively efficient. This efficiency extends to all areas – business, art, music, intellectual matters, science, politics, public affairs. When given facts, his or her predictions are more often correct. He or she sees confused or concealed realities more swiftly and correctly than other people. Self-actualizing people have the unusual ability to detect the spurious, the fake and the dishonest in personality and to judge people correctly and efficiently. They can see both positive and negative underlying traits in others. He or she lives more in the real world of nature than in the man-made mass of concepts, abstractions, expectations, beliefs and stereotypes that most people confuse with the world. They are apt to perceive what is really there rather than their own wishes, hopes, fears, theories and beliefs or those of their cultural group. He or she is generally unthreatened and unfrightened by the unknown, does not spend time protecting themselves from imagined dangers and does not cling to the familiar. Doubt or uncertainty is not torture but a challenge. (This paragraph was condensed and rearranged from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 153-154).
Creativeness
All self-actualizing people show a special kind of creativeness or originality or inventiveness, a fresh and direct way of looking at things. This creativity touches every activity in which they are engaged. In major projects, this creativity is coupled with long and hard work to bring ideas to fruition. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 170-171).
Dedicated to a Vocation or Great Cause Outside Themselves
Unlike neurotics and normal people, self-actualizing people don’t see the world’s problems only in relation to themselves. In general, they are focused on problems outside themselves. Their occupations are vocations, not just means to earn a living. “The only happy people I know are the ones who are working well at something they consider to be important… This was universal truth for all my self-actualizing subjects. They were devoted and dedicated to, and identified with some great cause or important job… Salvation is a by-product of self-actualizing work and self-actualizing duty.” This mission or calling enlists much of their energy and creativity. The quotation in this paragraph is from (Maslow, 1998, p. 9). (The rest was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, p. 159).
Egalitarian and Unprejudiced
They are friendly with and accept anyone of suitable character, regardless of race, sex, creed, class, education, political beliefs or color. They find it possible to learn from anybody who has something to teach them. They give honest respect to anybody who is a master of his or her tools or craft. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 167-168).
Quality of Detachment
They have a quality of detachment that allows them to be alone without being lonely and to remain unruffled and undisturbed by that which produces turmoil in others. They enjoy solitude and privacy and have no desperate need for others. This detachment can be interpreted by normal people as unfriendliness or snobbishness. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, p. 160-161).
Autonomous, Independent of Culture
Self-actualizing people have the ability to detach from their environment and are able to transcend their particular culture. They are self-contained and autonomous, following their own standards and not obeying the rules of others. However, they do not waste energy fighting against insignificant customs and regulations. They are neither antisocial nor consciously nonconforming. They are unperturbed by criticism and unmoved by flattery. On important matters they can be strongly aroused to seek social change. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 162-163 and Feist, 1994 p. 616.)
Profound Personal Relations
They have deeper and more profound interpersonal relations than do other adults. The other members in relationships tend to be healthier and often much closer to self-actualization than average. Self-actualizing people have deep ties with only a few individuals and their circle of friends is almost always small. They tend to associate closely with others that are equally superior in character and talent. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, p. 166).
Love and Sex
They are capable of love for the essence of Being of the other. This love is mutually felt and shared and is not motivated by a deficiency or incompleteness within the loved one. They do not love because they expect something in return. Sex between them can be a kind of mystical experience. But sexual activity can be taken lightly in the spirit of playfulness and humor. (This paragraph was condensed from from Feist, 1994, pp. 617-618).
Caring Attitude Toward Other People (Alfred Adler and Maslow termed this Gemeinschaftsgefühl)
Deep feeling of kinship with the whole human race. Have a genuine interest in helping others. Have an older-brother attitude expressed by identification, sympathy and affection for human beings in general in spite of occasional anger, impatience, disgust and sadness at the shortcomings of the average person. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 165-166).
Strong Sense of Right and Wrong
They have a strong sense of right and wrong, of good and evil and have little conflict over basic values. They are more likely than most people to counterattack against evil persons and evil behavior. They are far less ambivalent, confused or weak-willed about their own anger than the average person. Their notions of right and wrong and of good and evil are often not the conventional ones.
Accept Self, Others and Nature
Self-actualizing people accept themselves and their own nature without chagrin or complaint. They are free of overriding guilt, crippling shame and extreme anxiety (unlike neurotic or even normal people). The self-actualizing person sees human nature as it is and not as he wishes it would be. They have hearty appetites for food, sleep, sex and lack disgusts and aversions regarding body products, odors and functions. They lack defensiveness and protective coloration, and dislike such artificialities in others. Cant, guile, hypocrisy, front, face, playing a game, trying to impress are absent in them.
They do feel badly about improvable shortcomings, thoughtless loss of temper, hurting others, stubborn remnants of psychological ill health, bad habits, shortcomings of the culture and discrepancies between what is and what ought to be. (These two paragraphs were condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 155-157).
Spontaneous, Simple and Natural Behavior
Self-actualizing people are spontaneous in their inner thoughts and impulses and in behavior. Their behavior is marked by simplicity and naturalness and by lack of artificiality or straining for effect. This does not necessarily mean consistently unconventional behavior. They usually behave in a conventional fashion. However, this conventionality can be easily cast aside if convention hampers him or her from doing what he or she considers to be important. When the situation warrants it, he or she can become unconventional and uncompromising even at the price of ostracism and censure. He or she can also casually drop all sorts of rules of behavior when he or she becomes keenly absorbed in something close to his or her main interests or when he or she is with people who do not demand or expect routine behavior.
The code of ethics of self-actualizing people is relatively autonomous and individual rather than conventional. They can break not only conventions but laws, rules and principles when the situation seems to demand it. They are the most ethical of people but their ethics are not necessarily the same as those of normal people. (These two paragraphs were condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 157-159).
Continued Freshness of Appreciation
Self-actualizing people have the capacity to appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the basic goods of life, with awe, pleasure and even ecstasy. Grateful and appreciative of the basic experiences in life. They have a constant sense of good fortune and gratitude. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 163-164).
Discrimination Between Means and Ends
Self-actualizing people are fixed on ends rather than means and means are subordinated to ends. They often regard many experiences and activities as ends in themselves that are means for other people. They are more likely to appreciate the doing itself as well as the end result, going somewhere as well as arriving. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, pp. 169).
Philosophical and Unhostile Sense of Humor
What self-actualizing people consider to be humor is closely allied to philosophy.
Resolution of Dichotomies
Polarities, opposites or dichotomies are resolved by self-actualizing people. Examples are good/evil, selfishness/unselfishness, reason/instinct, spiritual/pagan, duty/pleasure. work/play, mature/childlike, kindness/ruthlessness, lust/love (Maslow, 1970a, pp. 178-179).
Passivity and Dominance in Self-Actualizing People
Self-actualizing people range from being relatively passive sole contributors, doing an excellent job in vocations with benevolent purpose, to being dominant and commanding leaders of a movement supporting a great cause. The dominant leaders may be either non-transcenders or transcenders.
A non-transcending self-actualizing leader uses a positive, participative and rewarding management style while a transcending self-actualizing leader, in addition, is often adored by subordinates, peers and superiors. Subordinates are usually dedicated to and work diligently for a transcending self-actualizing leader and the cause.
Note: In contrast, the autocrat, most definitely not a self-actualizing but a defective person, manages by fear, intimidation, threats and punishment.
Mystic, Oceanic, Cosmic, Spiritual, Religious or Peak Experience or Lack Thereof
There are two degrees of self-actualizing people. Some, the transcenders, have or have had highly significant experiences that are mystical in nature and give the feeling of going beyond or transcending the limits of ordinary experience and knowledge. Other self-actualizing people have or have had very few or none of these mystical experiences, which are insignificant to them even if experienced, and are termed non-transcenders. (Maslow, 1970a, p. 165 and Maslow, 1971, pp. 270-272).
Non-transcenders
Tend to be practical, effective, realistic, concrete, mundane, capable, robust and secular people. Such people live in the world, do very well and come to fulfillment in it. They master it, lead it and use it for good purpose. They are doers. They are likely to be social world improvers, the politicians, workers in society, reformers and crusaders. (This paragraph was condensed from Maslow, 1970a, p. 165).
Well known historical examples of dominant non-transcending self-actualizing people are Eleanor Roosevelt and Dwight Eisenhower.
Note: Some who claim not to have had mystic experiences are afraid of them, suppress them, deny them, turn away from them or forget them (Maslow, 1970b, p. 22). “Practically everyone has peak experiences but not everyone knows it. Some people wave these small mystical experiences aside” (Maslow, 1971, p. 47). Maslow found that “rhapsodic communication” or using figures of speech, metaphors and similes, i.e. more poetic speech, was more effective in uncovering mystic experiences from such people (Maslow, 1970b, pp. p. 84-90).
Values of Being
Maslow held that all self-actualizing people are motivated by intrinsic values, what he called Values of Being. Motivation by the Values of Being is an indicator of psychological health and contrasts from the motivation by deficiency or basic needs of most people. Values of Being are not basic needs in the same sense as food, shelter, security or companionship but are needs at a higher level. The lives of self-actualizing people are meaningful because they live among the Values of Being.
Maslow identified many Values of Being, but the exact number is not important because all are correlated. The Values of Being include:
Truth, honesty, reality
Goodness
Beauty
Wholeness, integration, synergy
Dichotomy-transcendence
Aliveness, spontaneity, self-regulation
Uniqueness, identity
Perfection
Necessity, inevitability
Completion, fulfillment, climax
Justice, fairness
Order, rightness, rhythm
Simplicity, essentiality, elegance
Richness, totality, complexity
Effortlessness, grace
Playfulness, humor, joy
Self-sufficiency, independence, self-determining
See Maslow, 1968, pp. 83-84; Maslow, 1970b, pp. 91-94 and Maslow, 1971, pp. 128-129.
The Values of Being are also the described attributes of reality or characteristics of identity perceived in peak-experiences by transcenders discussed below.
Transcenders
“Transcendance refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature and to the cosmos” (Maslow, 1971, p. 269).
The transcenders are aware of the realm of being and live in the realm of being of ends and intrinsic values, of poetry, esthetics, symbols, transcendence; religion or spirituality of the mystical, personal and non-institutional sort; and experience plateau and peak experiences with illuminations or insights or cognitions, which change their view of the world and themselves. The mystic experience is on a continuum from intense to mild. The mild mystic occurrence occurs in favored individuals often, perhaps even daily.
The transcenders are apt to write the poetry, the music, the philosophies and the religions. More apt than the non-transcenders to understand parables, figures of speech, paradoxes, music, art and other nonverbal communications. The transcenders see the sacredness in all things at the same time they see them at a practical level.
Transcenders seem to recognize each other and to come to almost instant intimacy and mutual understanding upon first meeting.
Transcenders are more awe-inspiring, more “unearthly,” more Godlike, more saintly in the medieval sense, more easily revered, more “terrible” in the older sense then the non-transcenders. A transcender often produce the thought, “This is a great person.”
Transcenders are far more apt to be innovators, discoverers of the new than non-transcenders.
The transcenders are prone to a kind of cosmic-sadness over the stupidity of people and their self-defeat, blindness, cruelty to each other and the Earth, and shortsightedness.
The deep conflicts over the elitism that is inherent in any doctrine of self-actualization – the self-actualized are after all superior people – is more easily managed by the transcenders than by the non-transcenders.
There are as many transcenders among business people, industrialists, engineers, scientists, managers, educators and political people as there are among the professionally religious, the poets, intellectuals, musicians and others who are supposed to be transcenders.
Two well known historical examples of dominant transcending self-actualizing people are Thomas Jefferson and Harriet Tubman.
This section on Transcenders is condensed from Maslow, 1971, pp. 270- 286.
Peak Experience
The following happens in the peak-experience:
The whole universe is perceived as an integrated and unified whole. One has his or her part or place in it.
Tremendous concentration. Non-evaluating, non-comparing or non-judging cognition.
Perceive external objects, the world and individual people as more detached from human concerns. Become more detached, more objective, more able to perceive the world as independent of human beings. Look upon nature as being here in itself and for itself, not as a human playground put here for human purposes. He or she can see the Earth in its own being rather than something to be used.
Perception in the peak experience is ego-transcending, self-forgetful, unselfish. It becomes more object-centered than ego-centered. Objects and others are perceived to have a reality of their own.
There is disorientation in time or space or even the lack of consciousness of time and space. It is like experiencing universality and eternity.
The world is seen only as beautiful, good, desirable and worthwhile and never as evil or undesirable. The world is accepted as it is. The bad things about life including pain and suffering are totally accepted.
The transcender transiently becomes God-like in that he or she can contemplate, encompass and come to understand the whole of being. He or she becomes non-striving, non-needing, non-wishing and asks less for himself or herself in such moments.
The Values of Being (above section) are the described attributes of reality or characteristics of identity perceived in peak-experiences. These Values, seen as aspects of reality, should be distinguished from the attitudes or emotions of the transcender toward this cognized reality and its attributes, e.g. awe, love, adoration, worship, humility, feeling of smallness plus Godlikeness, reverence, approval of, agreement with, wonder, sense of mystery, gratitude, devotion, dedication, identification with, belonging to, fusion with, surprise and incredulousness, fear, joy, rapture, bliss, ecstasy, etc.
The above emotions such as wonder, awe, reverence, humility, surrender and worship before the greatness of the experience are often reported. There can be a reconciliation and acceptance of death.
In peak experiences, the dichotomies, polarities and conflicts of life tend to be transcended or resolved.
There tends to be a transient loss of fear, anxiety, inhibition, of defense, of perplexity, confusion, conflict, of delay and restraint.
The peak experience is felt to be highly and uniquely valuable. Peak experiences can have immediate effects or aftereffects upon the person, which can be therapeutic or may result in a profound change in the person. Peak experiences are one part of the operational definition of the statement that “life is worthwhile” or “life is meaningful.” A peak-experience can be likened to a visit to a heaven on Earth. For the transcenders, peak and plateau (next section) experiences are the most important events in their lives.
There is the tendency for the person to move more closely to his or her real self.
The person feels to be more responsible, active, the creative center of his or her own activities and perceptions, self-determined with more free will than at other times.
Become more loving, accepting, spontaneous, honest and innocent.
Feel lucky, fortunate, graced. A common consequence is a feeling of gratitude to fate, nature, good fortune or God in the religious.
Proud and humble at the same time.
Sense of the sacred glimpsed in and through the momentary, the secular, the worldly (Unitive consciousness).
Maturing and aging means some loss of the novelty and surprise of a peak-experience. Also, the aging body and nervous system is less capable of tolerating a really shaking peak-experience.
This section on the Peak Experience is condensed from Maslow, 1970b, pp. 59 – 68.
Plateau Experience
The plateau experience is serene and calm, rather than a poignantly emotional, climactic, autonomic response to the miraculous, the awesome, the sacralized, the Unitive, the Values of Being as is the peak-experience. Plateau experiences may occur more frequently, and peak experiences less frequently, in older self-actualizing people. The plateau-experience always has a noetic (intellectual, relating to rational thought) and cognitive (involving conscious intellectual activity such as thinking, reasoning or remembering) element, which is not always true for the peak-experience, which can be purely and exclusively emotional. The plateau experience is far more voluntary than is a peak-experience.
A Dominant Transcending Self-Actualizing Leader is:
Dominant, commanding and assertive. Knows what he or she wants and will go after it and fight for it. Is a transcender.
Superior in all desirable characteristics and traits including superior perception, superior physical and psychological health, superior intelligence, superior leadership, etc.
More efficient, capable and talented than all others.
An innovator and discoverer of the new.
The best person for a task at hand and for a particular leadership position. Considers himself or herself, as does the group, to be the best person for the job. Powers are freely given to him or her by former peers, current subordinates. The group is generally grateful to the leader (though some may be envious and resentful.)
Feels pressure to do what he or she is good at. But has potential to be a great leader is a different situation. He or she may take and hold a position out of a sense of responsibility regardless of inherent likes or dislikes.
Needs to have his or her own way and gets special pleasure from it. Having his or her own way means the ability and the power to set things right in the world and to get a great personal pleasure from it. Gets a special kick out of doing a good job, seeing a good job done, forming a good and efficient organization, turning out an especially good product or the like. Following his or her own impulses is exactly the best way to make a better world because what pleases him or her most is to improve the world.
Tends to gravitate toward the top in an excellent organization.
Maintains a certain detachment, distance and objectivity towards subordinates. But knows what’s going on in the organization. Takes anxiety and tension upon his or her shoulders when necessary.
Assumes that subordinates are devoted unless it is demonstrated otherwise. Sees subordinates as fellow workers. Solicits information from subordinates and freely sends feedback.
Often admired, loved and respected by subordinates, peers and superiors. Subordinates are usually dedicated to and work diligently for him or her and the cause. (Excellence may be loved and admired but it is also hated and feared by some.)
The most versatile are able to switch management styles as needed. There are situations that realistically require a participative team approach or demand greater direction or even the extremes of controlling and motivating a subordinate autocrat with threats, punishment, intimidation, etc.
The best realize that the person who appears to be decisive, sure of their self, able to make a decision and stick with it, knows definitely what he or she wants, knows what he or she likes and dislikes with no uncertainty, clear about right and wrong – such a person is more apt to be selected out by the masses as leader. In a world where most people do not have an identity or a real self, are confused about right and wrong, good and evil; in which they are uncertain about what they want and don’t want, then they are apt to go for a leader who seems to know definitely what he or she wants.
Collected and condensed from Maslow, 1998, pp. 167-187 and Maslow, 1971, pp. 270-286.
Real and Seeming Imperfections of Self-Actualizing People
Self-actualizing people show many humans failings. They too are equipped with silly, wasteful or thoughtless habits. They can be boring, stubborn, petulant, selfish, angry, depressed, irritating. They are not free from superficial vanity, pride, partiality to their own productions, family, friends and children. Temper outbursts are not rare.
They are occasionally capable of an extraordinary and unexpected ruthlessness. They can display surgical coldness when it is called for, beyond the power of an ordinary man or woman.
Many have physical disabilities and other physical imperfections.
They are independent of the opinions of others, which can cause social altercation.
In their concentration, they may become absent-minded or humorless and forget social politeness. They may show that they are not interested in chatting, gay conversation or the like.
Their kindness can lead them into mistakes, e.g. marrying out of pity, getting involves with neurotics, bores, unhappy people and then regretting it, allowing scoundrels to impose on them…
These people are not free of guilt, anxiety, sadness, castigation, internal strife and conflict.
There are no perfect human beings!
This section on Imperfections is condensed from Maslow, 1970b, pp. 174 – 176.
Works Cited
Maslow, A. H. (1950). Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Healthy. Personality, Symposium No. 1, 11-34.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being 2nd Edition. New York, New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Maslow, A. H. (1970a). Motivation and Personality 2nd Edition. New York, New York, USA: Harper & Row Publishers.
Maslow, A. H. (1970b). Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences. New York, New York, USA: Penquin Books.
Maslow, A. H. (1971). The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York, New York, USA: Viking Press.
Feist, J. (1994). Theories of Personality 3rd Edition. New York, New York, USA: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Maslow, A. H. (1998). Maslow on Management. New York, New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.